Basics of Pipelining Pipelining is a technique in CPU design where multiple instruction stages are overlapped to improve performance. It allows the CPU to work on different parts of multiple…

An interrupt is a signal sent to the CPU to indicate that an event needs immediate attention. It temporarily halts the current process, executes a service routine, and then resumes…

Input and Output Organization Input and output (I/O) organization refers to the methods and techniques used by a computer to communicate with peripheral devices. It ensures smooth data transfer between…

Secondary Storage Secondary storage refers to non-volatile storage devices that hold data and programs permanently. Unlike primary memory, it retains data even when the computer is powered off. Types of…

Primary Memory Primary memory, also called main memory, is the internal memory of a computer directly accessible by the CPU. It stores data and instructions that are currently in use.…

Memory Hierarchy Memory hierarchy organizes different types of memory in a computer based on speed, cost, and capacity. Faster memory is smaller and expensive, while slower memory is larger and…

System Buses A system bus is a communication pathway that connects the CPU, memory, and input/output devices. It transfers data, addresses, and control signals within a computer system. Types of…

Registers in Computer Architecture Registers are small, high-speed storage units inside the CPU used to temporarily hold data, instructions, and addresses during processing. They are faster than main memory and…

Addressing Modes Addressing modes define how the operand of an instruction is accessed. They determine whether the operand is in a register, memory, or provided as an immediate value. Types…

Instruction Formats An instruction format defines the layout of bits in a computer instruction. It specifies how the CPU interprets opcodes, operands, and addresses to perform tasks. Components of an…